Sumer, Babylon, and Hittites

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Euphrates and eventually wiped out the Mitannian kingdom. The greatest defeat was
administered by the Assyrian Shalmaneser I (r. 1274-1245 BC) who claimed he destroyed 180 of
their cities and blinded 14,400 captives. The Kassites tried to make new boundary agreements
with the encroaching Assyrians, but in the second half of the thirteenth century BC Kashtiliash
IV was caught between Elam and the Assyrian Tukulti-Ninurta I (r. 1244-1208 BC). An epic
glorified the Assyrian conquest of Babylon and blamed the war on Kashtiliash for breaking an
agreement, but on an inscription found in Assur Tukulti-Ninurta frankly declared, "I forced
Kashtiliash, King of Kar-Duniash, to give battle."15 (Kar-Duniash is the Kassite term for
Babylon.)
After seven years of Assyrian domination, the nobles of Akkad and Kar-Duniash revolted and
put the rightful Kassite heir on the throne. Tukulti-Ninurta, who was thought to have brought evil
on Babylon, was punished when his son and the Assyrian nobles revolted and killed him in the
palace. Finally about 1160 BC Elam invaded and after three years of struggle took Babylon,
carrying off the statue of Marduk as the Hittites had a half millennium before.
Babylonian Literature
A creation story known by its first words as Enuma Elish, meaning "when above" was recited on
the fourth day of Babylon's New Year's Festival held annually at the beginning of spring. Its
seven tablets are almost complete and reveal a Babylonian cosmogony still influenced by the
Sumerians but clearly new in its assertion of the new god Marduk.
This epic began on high when nothing existed but Apsu, Tiamat, and their son Mummu. These
parents brought forth Lahmu and his sister Lahamu and then Anshar and his sister Kishar. The
latter pair surpassed the previous in stature and gave birth to Anu the sky-god who engendered
Nudimmud, also known as Enki or Ea, a god of wisdom. The younger gods were noisy and
rambunctious, disturbing the rest of their grandparents, Apsu and Tiamat. Unable to sleep Apsu
wanted to destroy them, but Tiamat cried out in anguish, though Mummu agreed with Apsu.
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SUMER, BABYLON, AND HITTITES
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Ea understood everything, and using magic he caused Apsu to sleep so that he could remove his
crown and splendor. Then Ea killed the subdued Apsu, locked up Mummu, and established his
abode on Apsu with his wife Damkina. She gave birth to Marduk, who Ea made equal to the
gods. Clothed with the rays of ten gods, Marduk was powerful and majestic.
Anu created four winds which caused waves and disturbed Tiamat, upset at hearing that Apsu
was slain. Tiamat was restless and put Kingu in charge of an army of gods to avenge Apsu.
When Ea heard of it, he went to his grandfather Anshar who told him to go to battle. In the
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destroyed portion of the text apparently Ea failed. So Anshar turned to his son Anu, advising him
to speak to Tiamat; but perceiving her plans he had to turn back. Then Anshar, the father of the
gods, told the assembly that the valiant Marduk would be the avenger of his father, Ea, who
called Marduk into his private room and told him the plan of his heart.
Marduk assured Anshar that he would trample on the neck of Tiamat and asked him to convene
the assembly of gods to proclaim his new supremacy. Anshar sent Kaka to Lahmu and Lahamu
to bring the gods to him for a banquet. Having enjoyed the food and swelled with wine, they
declared that Marduk's destiny was unequaled and his commands not to be changed, giving him
kingship over the whole universe. They told him to preserve the life of those who trust in him but
not those who espouse evil. Marduk demonstrated his new power by destroying a garment and
restoring it in front of them by the power of his word. Rejoicing they did homage to Marduk as
their king, saying, "Go and cut off the life of Tiamat."15
Taking the weapons they gave him, Marduk harnessed his terrible storm chariot and went to
challenge Tiamat to single combat. He enmeshed her in his net; when she opened her mouth, he
drove in the evil wind which distended her belly. Then he shot an arrow which split her heart.
When her life was destroyed, he stood on her carcass. Marduk imprisoned her followers and
broke their weapons. Then binding Kingu and taking from him the tablet of destinies, Marduk
put his seal on it and fastened it on his breast. He split Tiamat into two parts, half in place as the
earth and half for a roof as the sky. He crossed the heavens, and as the counterpart of Apsu he
established Esharra where Anu, Enlil, and Ea could live.
Marduk created stations for the great gods, setting up the stars in the signs of the zodiac, dividing
the year into twelve months with three constellations in each. He caused the moon to shine as the
ornament of the night. He set up humans so that they could serve the gods. Marduk assembled
the gods, and they decided to punish Kingu for having caused the revolt. With his blood they
created humanity, imposing services to set the gods free. For a sanctuary they made Babylon.
Then they all enjoyed a banquet with music and praised the fifty names of the divine Marduk.
This war of the gods is a terrible projection of human strife. The younger generation of gods is
favored to justify Babylon's having overthrown those who came before. Once again woman is
trampled under the foot of male dominance, Tiamat in this case symbolizing the primordial [ Pobierz całość w formacie PDF ]

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